What is the most important chapter within the New Testament, outside of the Gospels? Is it in Romans, maybe chapter 8? Or perhaps Galatians? No. Acts 15 defined the course for much of the New Testament. It addressed the social challenges faced by Jesus’ movement. Paul and John of Revelation addressed its issues. What makes this chapter so significant?
Jesus’ movement in the first century was Jewish, in piety and faith, practice and theology. Yes, it was a messianic-redemptive movement within Judaism, but it was Jewish. Most of his followers were Jewish. They identified as Jews, and, from all indications within the New Testament, Jews, who were not part of his movement, also identified them as Jews. (Remember: the hope for a Messiah was a Jewish hope).
Jesus’ movement in the first century was Jewish, in piety and faith, practice and theology.
Because his movement was Jewish in every way, Jesus’ followers processed, interacted, and dealt with issues that arose like ancient Jews. Differences of opinion existed within Jesus’ movement on certain issues, like the question of the inclusion of Gentiles, non-Jews, into the movement. These questions arose, in part, because ancient Judaism wrestled with them as well. The solutions offered align with the differences of opinion found within Jewish circles.
When we look at the New Testament outside of the Gospels, Jesus’ movement primarily dealt with sociological issues, not theological. Later Christian tradition, particularly since the Protestant Reformation, sought to frame the core of the New Testament as a theological break from Judaism, Law versus grace, faith versus works, religion versus relationship. Such readings fail to recognize the sociological realities inherent within Jewish discussions of Law (Torah), circumcision, and adherence to the commandments. This disassociation of the New Testament from its historical and cultural context has led to a universal misunderstanding of Judaism within Christianity, as well as a failure to recognize the social realities presented by non-Jews to Jesus’ Jewish followers and the reflection of Jewish debates about non-Jews within the nascent Jesus movement.
The coming of Jews from Judaea to Antioch in Syria, where Paul and Barnabas were based, precipitated the meeting in Jerusalem in Acts 15. These Judeans taught unless Gentiles were circumcised according to the custom of Moses, they would not be safe (Acts 15:1-5). Paul and Barnabas refuted such a suggestion, so the Antioch community sent them to Jerusalem to inquire of the elders there and receive their decision.
Ancient Jewish, Greek, and Latin authors acknowledged the attraction of non-Jews to Judaism in antiquity (Philo, On the Virtues 20:102-104; and 33:179; Josephus, Against Apion 2:123, 210).
“From the Greeks we are severed more by our geographical position than by our institutions, with the result that we neither hate nor envy them. On the contrary, many of them have agreed to adopt (enter) our laws; of whom some have remained faithful, while others, lacking the necessary endurance, have again seceded...To all who desire to come and live under the same laws with us, he [Moses in the Pentateuch] gives a gracious welcome, holding that it is not family ties alone which constitute relationship, but agreement in principles of conduct. On the other hand, it was not his pleasure that casual visitors should be admitted to the intimacies of our daily life” (Josephus, Against Apion 2:123, 210).
Some Gentiles found themselves attracted to the theological spirituality and moral values of Judaism. Others found themselves attracted to its ceremonial laws. Gentiles embraced Judaism at various levels, from fully converting and identifying with Israel, to remaining on the periphery, some more closely aligned to Judaism its beliefs and practices, while others remained merely casually attracted.
Jewish, Greek, and Latin sources indicate that a non-Jew who wanted to “enter” the Jewish covenant did so, through the rite of circumcision for males (Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai on Exodus 12:48; see also b. Keritot 9a; y. Megillah 3.2.74d; Juvenal, Satires 14:96-106; Tacitus, Histories 5:4-5). The practice at the center of Acts 15! So too, our sources indicate a difference of opinion within ancient Judaism as to whether non-Jews could remain non-Jews, adhering to the morality of Judaism and the trust in its God, or if they had to be circumcised to be safe. Two early second century sages reflect this debate: “Rabbi Eliezer says: ‘All gentiles are excluded from a share in the world to come’...Said Rabbi Joshua to him: ‘...but there are righteous people among all the nations who do have a share in the world to come’ (t. Sanhedrin 13:2; see also Josephus, Antiquities, 20:34-46). Some opinions, like Rabbi Joshua, allowed non-Jews to remain as such, while others, represented by Rabbi Eliezer, insisted they “enter” the covenant of Israel, which meant circumcision for a man.
Ancient Judaism, then, divided the world into three basic categories of people:
1. Jews: this referred to those born to Jewish parents, specifically a Jewish mother. For male children, they were circumcised on the eighth day. It also included non-Jews who decided to join themselves to Judaism (convert), which meant circumcision for a man. These were referred to as proselytes. This group, both native born Jews and proselytes, were expected to obey the commandments of the Torah including Sabbath observance and dietary restrictions. They experienced all the privileges and benefits of being Jewish (like sacrificing in the Jerusalem Temple and celebrating the Passover) and all the restrictions and responsibilities.
2. Polytheists: these represented most of the rest of humanity who worshiped other gods, including their idols. Judaism’s position on these was either, they would turn to the God of Israel at the end of the age, or they would be judged and punished. Judaism saw idolatry as the root of much of polytheists immoral behavior and practices.
3. God-fearers (God-worshippers): this refers to a group of non-Jews on the fringe of the Jewish community, Jewish sympathizers. They were curious about Judaism and its God; thus, they gathered around the Jewish community, particularly in the synagogue, but they may still very well continue to participate in the worship of local and civic cults, continuing to frequent temples to the other gods. Some within this group might find themselves more attracted to Judaism, particularly its morality, and therefore, they may begin to adopt certain Jewish beliefs, views, and practices. They may embrace the monotheism of Judaism, adhere to the moral laws of its God, they may even observe the Sabbath, but they did not convert to Judaism. For men, they remain uncircumcised. Judaism had mixed opinions about this group, most likely due to the wide spectrum represented by those within this group. Some Jews said that non-Jews could remain as such and worship God and be fine. Others contended that they would only be fine if they became proselytes. Because these non-Jews did not convert, the Torah of Moses was not incumbent upon them.
…our sources indicate a difference of opinion within ancient Judaism as to whether non-Jews could remain non-Jews, adhering to the morality of Judaism and the trust in its God, or if they had to be circumcised to be safe.
The God-fearers may adopt certain Jewish practices, but they were not obligated to obey the Torah, the law of Moses. This brings up a point taken for granted by Jews, but often unknown and not understood by non-Jews: within Judaism, the Torah was not given to Gentiles. Gentiles are not expected to follow the Torah or adhere to its commandments. Why? Because the nations of the world did not receive the Torah at Sinai, Israel did. The Torah, the law of Moses, is the code of the covenant between God and Israel. It actualizes his relationship to them and identifies them as his chosen people. So, Jews, native born and proselytes, must keep the Torah; non-Jews, Gentile God-fearers do not. Within the ancient sources, we hear of Gentile God-fearers adopting certain Jewish practices, yet they remained on the periphery. They did not belong to the Jewish community, but they no longer fit within the idolatrous world of the non-Jews. Caught between two worlds they often found themselves pulled into converting to Judaism. This presents the sociological connection with Torah and circumcision (see Acts 15:1-5), and underscores that these issues were not theological but dealt with the status of non-Jews vis-à-vis Judaism and its God.
This debate concerning non-Jews who wished to align with Judaism penetrated Jesus’ movement and set the stage for the council and its decision in Acts 15. This council produced a decision, which has been termed the Apostolic Decree. Acts 15 states it twice (15:20, 28-29). Next week we will turn our attention to the decision of the Jerusalem council.